Business Disputes in India: The Role of Indian Courts in Resolution

Introduction – Business Disputes in India

Over the last decade, the number and nature of business disputes in India have changed noticeably. Companies today operate across wider markets, enter into layered transactions, and deal with evolving compliance burdens. With that expansion comes friction, and often, litigation. It could be a delayed payment, a broken exclusivity clause, or even board-level disagreement; whatever the origin, Indian courts remain central to how these matters eventually get resolved.

Commercial uncertainty, whether between co-founders, vendors, or shareholders, doesn’t always begin in a courtroom, but quite frequently ends there. The structure of our legal system has, over time, adapted to offer a more defined path to resolution. Through district forums, High Courts, and the specialised benches under the Commercial Courts Act, parties have a range of options to assert or defend their rights.

Interestingly, in more serious or high-value matters, litigation is not always adversarial. It’s also used as a mechanism for urgent relief, such as seeking injunctions or appointing receivers, or even simply to compel performance. The role of the judiciary in business conflicts, therefore, extends well beyond judgment-writing. It plays a protective role too, often in real-time.

From the outside, the idea of commercial litigation may seem lengthy or procedural. But for many businesses, it is still the most dependable way to enforce contracts, prevent irreparable harm, and preserve commercial credibility. And while India promotes arbitration and mediation in parallel, the courts still underpin those mechanisms, especially when issues of enforceability or interim measures arise.

Jurisdiction of Indian Courts in Business Disputes

The jurisdiction of Indian courts is shaped by a mixture of civil procedure, special legislation, and precedents. It’s not just about which forum a party goes to,  but also about how the courts manage those matters procedurally. Forum selection is often dictated by monetary value, the subject matter involved, and occasionally by urgency.

Civil Courts and Business Disputes

Civil courts at the district level typically serve as entry points for lower-value business disputes in India. These courts operate under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, and handle a range of suits, like non-payment claims, service defaults, or recovery proceedings. That said, most high-value commercial disputes no longer begin here. Especially after 2015, the introduction of the Commercial Courts Act led to a reallocation of commercial litigation to specialised courts.

But even now, where the pecuniary value of the matter doesn’t meet the statutory threshold under the Commercial Courts Act, or where a matter is inherently civil and not expressly covered under that statute, these courts remain relevant. For example, a service-level claim worth ₹2.5 lakh will often stay within the general civil docket unless clubbed with larger reliefs.

High Courts and Original Side Jurisdiction

Some High Courts like those in Bombay, Delhi, Madras, and Calcutta enjoy original civil jurisdiction. Not all High Courts have it. Only a few, and even those, with certain conditions. In those jurisdictions, parties often bring legal remedies for business disputes directly before the High Court, particularly where the claim value exceeds the statutory threshold.

Apart from monetary value, there’s also a practical reason behind this preference: specialist benches, efficient registries, and faster listing. Not to mention judicial comfort with commercial arrangements, especially IP disputes, private equity disagreements, or complex shareholder litigation.

Another often overlooked benefit is procedural nuance: High Courts tend to enforce deadlines for filing, reply affidavits, and interim motions far more strictly than subordinate courts. Counsel appearing regularly before them is also expected to be commercially equipped.

Role of the Supreme Court in Commercial Litigation

Although not a court of first instance in commercial matters, the Supreme Court continues to play a key role in shaping commercial litigation jurisprudence. It often hears appeals against High Court orders and NCLAT decisions, especially in cases where the question of law or public interest arises.

Special Leave Petitions (SLPs) under Article 136 are frequently filed in the context of enforcement of foreign awards, jurisdictional objections, and constitutional challenges to regulatory actions. Not all of them are admitted, of course, but the Supreme Court does intervene where necessary, especially when divergent interpretations among High Courts cause inconsistency.

It’s also not uncommon for the Supreme Court to lay down important procedural standards that lower courts eventually follow, such as timelines for disposal of arbitration challenges or directions on how to treat interim measures.

Commercial Courts Under the 2015 Act

The Commercial Courts, Commercial Appellate Courts, and Commercial Divisions were introduced under the Commercial Courts Act, 2015, to expedite commercial dispute resolution in India. The idea was to assign a defined set of disputes to judges trained or designated to hear business-related litigation.

Important features include:

• Defined pecuniary threshold (₹3 lakh and above).
• Summary procedure allowed in appropriate matters.
• Mandatory pre-litigation mediation in some non-urgent cases.
• Tight timelines for written submissions and evidence.
• Case Management Hearings to enforce structure.

The list of what qualifies as a “commercial dispute” under the Act is broad. It includes matters relating to the sale of goods, partnership agreements, intellectual property rights, exploitation of natural resources, franchise disputes, and others. The goal here was simple: take business disputes and funnel them into a forum that runs on discipline, clarity, and commercial urgency.

In some states, the implementation has been smoother than in others. Delhi and Mumbai, for instance, have relatively active Commercial Divisions with regular benches. Others still face challenges like overburdened judges and listing delays.

Table: Court Jurisdiction Breakdown in Commercial Matters

Forum	Type of Jurisdiction	Sample Case Types	Typical Threshold
District Civil Courts	Original (General Civil)	Vendor recovery, low-value contract breaches	Below ₹3 lakh
High Courts (Original)	Original (Selective)	High-value disputes, shareholder litigation	₹1 crore and above (varies)
Commercial Courts	Original (Specialised Bench)	As per Commercial Courts Act definitions	₹3 lakh and above
Supreme Court of India	Appellate / Constitutional	Interpretation, enforcement, award challenges	No fixed limit

To sum up, forum selection is not mechanical. Parties must consider legal strategy, timelines, interim relief potential, and the complexity of the matter. Courts remain central to dispute resolution mechanisms in India, but knowing where to begin is sometimes as important as what to file.

Types of Business Disputes Addressed by Indian Courts

The Indian judiciary has historically dealt with a broad array of commercial and corporate disputes. Below are the more frequently litigated categories of business disputes in India, each presenting its procedural nuance and legal challenges.

Contractual Disputes Between Businesses

Disputes arising from breaches of contracts, including but not limited to commercial agreements, supply contracts, franchise arrangements, licensing deals, form a significant portion of business disputes. Issues typically include non-performance, delayed delivery, quality defects, or disagreements over termination and damages.

In such matters, courts examine the construction of contractual clauses, implied obligations, and the quantum of damages. Interim measures (injunctions, stay orders) are also common.

Shareholder and Company Law Conflicts

Company law matters are typically dealt with by the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT), though High Courts may still hear older matters or appeals. Common issues include:

• Oppression and mismanagement under the Companies Act;
• Disputes over valuation, board composition, or related party transactions;
• Breach of shareholders’ agreements.

Courts play an interpretive role, especially when conflicts overlap with contract or constitutional law. This adds another dimension to commercial dispute resolution in India.

Insolvency and Bankruptcy-Related Disputes

Under the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, disputes now often play out before the NCLT, but courts still step in for:

• Review of Resolution Plans;
• Challenges to eligibility or misconduct;
• Conflicts under parallel proceedings (civil suits vs IBC action).

The overlap between insolvency law and other litigation keeps courts deeply involved in preserving asset value and ensuring procedural fairness.

Cross-Border Business and Arbitration-Linked Litigation

In an increasingly globalised economy, the role of the judiciary in business conflicts often includes facilitating or challenging foreign arbitral awards, supervising interim relief in foreign-seated arbitration, or hearing jurisdictional objections.

Parties may approach courts for:

• Injunctions against parallel foreign proceedings;
• Appointment of arbitrators;
• Recognition and enforcement of awards under the International conventions, such as the New York Convention.

The ability of Indian courts to enforce awards efficiently is seen as a key metric of their commercial maturity and respect for party autonomy.

Court Procedures for Commercial Dispute Resolution

Court-based litigation continues to be a primary mode of resolving business disputes, especially where parties seek enforceability, urgent relief, or binding adjudication. The litigation lifecycle in a commercial matter typically moves across four major procedural phases, from pre-filing to final appeal. Each phase involves specific legal, evidentiary, and strategic considerations.

Pre-Litigation Steps and Filing of Suit

Before approaching the courts, commercial litigants are generally expected to undertake basic pre-litigation procedures. For disputes covered under the Commercial Courts Act, mandatory pre-institution mediation is required in non-urgent cases. This is intended to streamline dispute resolution mechanisms by reducing avoidable court filings.

In addition, parties often send legal notices, explore contractually agreed cure periods, or review dispute resolution clauses in existing agreements. At this stage, reviewing jurisdiction, forum selection clauses, and limitation periods is essential.

Once a decision to litigate is made, the filing party must:

• Draft a plain identifying the relief sought.
• Include a detailed cause of action and all contractual documents.
• Submit supporting affidavits, valuations, and any interim application.
• Pay the court fees and ensure registration within the limitation period.

In commercial suits, emphasis is laid on precise pleadings. Courts discourage vague or overly broad claims. This procedural discipline has made commercial dispute resolution in India more streamlined over the last few years.

Interim Reliefs and Injunctions

Interim protection plays a critical role in business disputes. Parties often approach courts for temporary injunctions, appointment of receivers, or status quo orders, especially in sensitive disputes involving misuse of funds, misappropriation of IP, or disruption of operations.

Under Order XXXIX of the CPC, courts can grant ex parte relief in appropriate cases. But the applicant must satisfy three conditions:

• Prima facie case;
• Irreparable harm;
• Balance of convenience in its favour.

In practice, interim applications can significantly alter the course of litigation. For instance, freezing orders on bank accounts or restraining asset sales can protect a party’s position even before trial begins. It’s also a key reason why courts remain relevant even when arbitration is contemplated.

Trial, Evidence, and Oral Hearings

After pleadings are completed, courts frame issues based on disputed questions of fact or law. This is followed by the evidence stage, typically consisting of:

• Affidavits of evidence in chief;
• Cross-examination of witnesses;
• Production of expert or documentary evidence.

In most commercial suits, the documentary trail, emails, contracts, and board minutes take precedence over oral testimony. Courts encourage electronic evidence and discourage unnecessary witness examination unless credibility is disputed.

Oral hearings follow evidence, during which arguments are advanced on the core dispute. Judges may sometimes ask for written submissions, particularly in larger or multi-party cases. Case management hearings under the Commercial Courts framework help keep these stages time-bound.

Even though the process remains technical, the judiciary has shown increasing sensitivity to commercial deadlines and financial impact on the litigants.

Appellate Review and Final Orders

After final orders are passed by trial courts, the aggrieved party can prefer an appeal. High Courts serve as the primary appellate forum for decisions passed by civil or commercial courts. In appropriate cases, a further appeal may lie before the Supreme Court.

Appellate courts often re-examine:

• Legal errors in interpretation;
• Failure to consider material evidence;
• Procedural unfairness in trial.

Appeals are not merely rubber stamps. Some of the most influential commercial jurisprudence has emerged at the appellate level. Still, courts discourage multiple appeals where litigation is used as a stalling tactic.

The appellate phase completes the lifecycle of most legal remedies for business disputes, unless further review or curative steps are pursued in rare scenarios.

Phases of Commercial Litigation

Stage	Key Features	Common Reliefs or Outcomes
Pre-Litigation	Legal notices, mediation, review of contracts	Settlement, contract enforcement
Filing & Pleadings	Draft plaint, attach contracts, interim motion	Summons issued, injunctions granted
Evidence & Trial	Witness affidavits, cross-examination, documents	Findings of fact, legal arguments tested
Appeal & Final Review	Filed before High Court or SC; focus on legal error	Decree modified, affirmed, or overturned

Key Judicial Pronouncements Shaping Business Law

Some of the most critical changes in how business disputes in India are resolved haven’t come from legislation, but from judicial decisions. Indian courts have had to interpret commercial arrangements, resolve conflicting statutory frameworks, and draw clear procedural boundaries.

Contractual Interpretation and Enforcement Trends

Over the years, courts have moved cautiously, but firmly, in limiting interference with contractual terms, unless the agreement itself is void, unconscionable, or built on fraud.

In the case of Energy Watchdog v. CERC, the dispute centered on a long-term power purchase agreement and whether fluctuations in global fuel prices could trigger a force majeure claim. The Supreme Court declined to treat commercial volatility as grounds for overriding a contractually agreed risk allocation. The judgment reaffirmed that where parties have consciously allocated risk, courts will not intervene merely because the arrangement has become less profitable for one side.

In the case of Nabha Power Ltd. v. Punjab State Electricity Board, the key issue was whether unwritten performance obligations could be implied into a commercial contract. The Supreme Court held that unless a term is strictly necessary to give business efficacy to the agreement, courts will not read additional obligations into it. This ruling has become a cornerstone in the interpretation of implied terms in Indian commercial dispute resolution.

Shareholder Conflicts and Internal Governance

Shareholder disputes are not new in India, but their increasing frequency before courts—particularly in private and family-run companies—marks a notable trend. A prominent example is Tata Sons v. Cyrus Mistry, where the issues extended beyond boardroom dynamics to involve statutory protections under the Companies Act, 2013, and the scope of the NCLT’s intervention powers.

While ruling in favour of Tata Sons, the Supreme Court emphasized that courts must distinguish between poor business decisions and actual oppression. Not every removal or boardroom disagreement amounts to oppressive conduct—there must be demonstrable prejudice.

This principle is now influencing how courts evaluate governance-related claims, particularly under Section 241 of the Companies Act. In investor-driven or startup ventures, where board control is often used strategically, the judgment serves as a reminder that Indian courts will anchor their analysis in established company law principles, rather than presuming misconduct.

Arbitral Award Enforcement and Judicial Support

Enforcement of arbitral awards has been a litmus test for investor confidence. There was a time, especially in the 1990s, when enforcement was erratic. That has changed.

In the case of Vijay Karia & Ors. v. Prysmian Cavi E Sistemi SRL, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that Indian courts will not re-examine evidence or revisit the merits when enforcing foreign arbitral awards. Under Section 48 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, enforcement can be refused only on narrow grounds—such as public policy, incapacity, or lack of proper notice. Beyond these exceptions, the award is binding and must be upheld.

In another important case, Amazon v. Future Retail, the Delhi High Court enforced an emergency arbitral award passed in Singapore. This was the first time an Indian court treated an emergency arbitrator’s decision from a foreign-seated arbitration as binding and enforceable.

Courts now actively protect legal remedieseven if arbitration is the first step. They treat arbitration and litigation not as competing systems, but as connected stages, especially when enforcement or urgent relief is involved.

Cross-Border Disputes and Territorial Reach

In the case of BALCO v. Kaiser Aluminium, the Supreme Court established a clear principle that if the seat of arbitration is outside India, Part I of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, will not apply. This excludes Indian court intervention in matters such as interim relief, appointment of arbitrators, or setting aside foreign awards.

The judgment marked a turning point in India’s approach to international arbitration, affirming that the choice of seat determines the procedural law. By upholding party autonomy and limiting judicial interference, the Court sent a strong signal that Indian courts will respect foreign-seated arbitrations, even when Indian parties or elements are involved.

This clarity has significantly curbed tactical litigation and parallel proceedings, offering greater confidence to foreign investors that opting for a foreign seat ensures procedural neutrality and enforceability.

Collectively, these judgments reflect how the Indian judiciary is steadily reshaping the contours of dispute resolution, not by rewriting the law, but by interpreting existing provisions with a pragmatic, commercially grounded lens.

For those drafting contracts, managing litigation, or advising on risk, these judicial interpretations are critical. Ultimately, it’s not just what the contract says; it’s how a court is likely to read it that often defines the outcome.

Role of Specialised Commercial Courts

The Commercial Courts regime was introduced to address one of the most persistent challenges in business disputes: judicial delay. The framework was laid down under the Commercial Courts Act, 2015, with the primary aim of ensuring speedy, structured, and expert-led adjudication of commercial litigation.

While the courts were not new, their designation was. Existing civil courts, appellate benches, and High Court divisions were assigned commercial matters under this statute. That categorisation shifted how Indian courts began handling business-centric suits, especially those above a defined pecuniary threshold.

Establishment and Mandate under the Commercial Courts Act

The Act carved out a distinct class of disputes termed “commercial disputes”, distinguished by monetary value and by subject. The current monetary threshold is ₹3 lakh. This ensures that even MSMEs have access to expedited judicial proceedings. Some High Courts retain a higher original jurisdiction limit, like ₹1 crore, but the Act operates uniformly across states.

Faster Case Timelines and Summary Procedure

One of the defining elements of these courts is the emphasis on time-bound stages. Once a suit is admitted, the defendant has just 120 days to file a written statement. There’s no leniency beyond this limit.

Even interim reliefs and objections are decided swiftly. Courts are also empowered to apply summary judgment principles, essentially, to decide a matter without a full trial, if the facts are undisputed and only a question of law remains.

This shift has altered how legal pleadings are approached, with courts increasingly expecting parties to present complete documentation upfront. Delayed disclosures or fragmented submissions are often viewed unfavourably, reinforcing the importance of early procedural integrity. While efficiency in commercial dispute resolution has improved as a result, the pace of implementation continues to vary across states.

Case Management Hearings and Judicial Discipline

Case Management Hearings (CMHs) are now a formal part of commercial suits. These are structured scheduling meetings where judges and counsel fix dates for:

• Completion of pleadings;
• Discovery and inspection;
• Admission/denial of documents;
• Witness statements and cross-examination;
• Final hearing arguments.

The purpose is to prevent erratic adjournments. Courts may even impose cost sanctions if a party delays submissions or absents itself. This judicial firmness, while not absolute, has made a difference.

Key Differentiators of Commercial Courts

Feature	Commercial Court Regime	Traditional Civil Courts
Jurisdiction Threshold	₹3 lakh (High Courts vary)	No minimum requirement
Timelines for Pleadings	Strict 120-day limit for written statement	Often extended via condonation
Case Management Hearings	Mandatory	Rare or informal
Summary Judgment Power	Available under Order XIII-A	Not routinely exercised
Cost Sanctions for Delay	Applied as deterrent	Rarely enforced

Limitations of Court-Based Dispute Resolution

Despite structural improvements and statutory reforms, the reality is that litigation remains far from seamless. Procedural rigidity, inconsistent enforcement, and docket congestion are just some of the problems that continue to shadow the process.

Delays, Adjournments, and Procedural Complexities

Even with the Commercial Courts Act in place, the ecosystem around it, registries, listing sections, and clerical staff, is still adjusting. Listing delays are routine. Judges may not be designated exclusively for commercial work in all jurisdictions. Adjournments, though frowned upon, are often granted.

Some typical causes of procedural delay include:

• Multiple interim applications filed as dilatory tactics.
• Transfer applications to shift forums or judges;
• Delays in issuing summons or serving notice;
• Time consumed in objections to document admissibility.

In commercial matters, where evidence is mostly documentary and timelines are tight, these hurdles are frustrating. Courts still have discretionary power to extend time, and while checks exist, the system doesn’t always enforce them evenly. As a result, not every commercial dispute benefits from the efficiency the statute envisioned.

Alternatives to Litigation: Court-Assisted Settlement

Even as courts remain the principal forum for resolving business disputes, the emphasis in recent years has shifted toward resolving matters outside litigation, particularly through structured, court-referred alternatives. Courts have become increasingly proactive in nudging parties towards mediated settlements or compromise frameworks wherever viable, especially where long-term business relationships are at stake.

While litigation ensures enforceability and judicial scrutiny, settlement avenues provide speed, confidentiality, and cost-efficiency, factors that are critical in commercial disputes.

Role of Mediation Under the Civil Procedure Code

Under Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908, courts are expressly empowered to refer matters to mediation, conciliation, or other modes of alternate dispute resolution. Once pleadings are filed, the court may, at its discretion, assess whether there exists an element of settlement which the parties may explore. If so, the judge refers the case to an approved mediator or mediation centre, often within the court complex itself.

Court-Referred ADR Mechanisms

Beyond mediation, courts have facilitated other structured dispute resolution mechanisms, such as conciliation under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. In some forums, Lok Adalats have also been used, though more commonly in lower-value or consumer matters.

Notably, courts are no longer merely recommending alternative dispute resolution (ADR); they are actively directing it. In several High Courts, such as Delhi and Bombay, formal protocols exist to assess the suitability of ADR in every suitable case. Some judges go further, closely monitoring mediation progress and seeking regular updates on settlement status before allowing the matter to proceed to trial.

These approaches have contributed to the evolving role of the judiciary, as more than just adjudicators, but also facilitators of closure.

Enforceability of Settlements and Consent Decrees

A common concern with out-of-court mechanisms is enforceability. However, when a settlement is reached through court-referred mediation, it is typically recorded as a consent decree. This makes the settlement binding and enforceable like a civil judgment.

Key characteristics:

• Consent decrees are final; non-compliance amounts to contempt of court.
• Courts retain jurisdiction to enforce the decree in case of breach;
• Settlements reached during court-monitored mediation are filed as part of court records.
• In arbitration-related settlements, the award can be passed in terms of settlement under Section 30 of the Arbitration Act.

This approach ensures that legal remedies remain intact even when the matter is resolved amicably. Courts are, in that sense, still the backbone of enforceability, even when they encourage alternatives to litigation.

Court vs Court Referred ADR

Criteria	Court Proceedings	Court-Referred ADR
Duration	1–3 years (avg. for commercial suits)	2–6 months (for mediation)
Public Disclosure	Yes (open court)	No (confidential process)
Binding Nature	Yes (judgment)	Yes (via consent decree)
Legal Finality	Yes (can be appealed)	Final if recorded by court
Cost Implications	Higher legal fees	Moderated expenses

Reforms and Judicial Trends in Commercial Dispute Resolution

The legal system’s alignment with the pace of modern commerce is not incidental; it stems from targeted, deliberate reforms. In the realm of business disputes, a series of court-driven procedural and institutional changes has significantly enhanced access, efficiency, and predictability. As a result, Indian courts are now better equipped to manage the complexity and volume of commercial litigation than they were even a few years ago. 

Digitisation of Court Processes

One of the most significant changes in recent years has been the push toward digital infrastructure. E-filing portals are now operational in most High Courts and several District and Commercial Courts. Documents can be uploaded, affidavits signed digitally, and notices issued electronically.

This transformation has had a direct impact, where documentation-heavy matters (e.g., contracts, financials, emails) are now presented digitally, reducing delays in scrutiny and reference.

Key improvements include:

• E-filing and automated case numbering
• Digital cause lists and hearing notifications
• Online payment of court fees
• Remote affidavit attestation in some jurisdictions

This has also helped foreign parties or their counsel participate in litigation without physical presence.

Judicial Approach to Contractual Certainty

There is now a clearer judicial intent to respect commercial contracts, especially in cases where agreements are negotiated between equals and fully documented. Courts have shown increasing reluctance to rewrite terms or infer obligations not explicitly agreed.

For example, in long-term supply agreements or franchise contracts, courts now examine the economic intent behind clauses, not just their grammatical construction. This reinforces legal clarity and ensures legal remedies are predictable.

Contract enforcement decisions are now anchored in commercial logic, not abstract interpretation. This is especially visible in Commercial Court judgments post-2018.

Emphasis on Timely Disposal of Commercial Suits

Timelines under the Commercial Courts Act are now being enforced with growing discipline. Judges are unwilling to grant indefinite extensions for filing replies or evidence. Cost sanctions are being imposed where parties delay filings or misuse adjournments.

Many courts have adopted ‘strict scrutiny’ on the following:

• Extensions beyond 120 days for written statements;
• Repeated interlocutory applications to delay trial;
• Non-cooperation during discovery and admissions.

Emerging Trends in E-Courts and Virtual Hearings

The pandemic accelerated the adoption of virtual hearings, and they have since become a regular feature of the judicial process. Although commercial benches typically conduct trials in person, video conferencing is now standard practice for interim applications, case management hearings, and procedural reviews. This hybrid model has introduced greater flexibility and efficiency into the litigation process.

In matters involving foreign investors, cross-border claimants, or multi-city legal teams, this flexibility has made a real difference. Courts are also permitting hybrid hearings, where some lawyers appear physically, while others log in virtually.

Virtual courtrooms now help deliver faster interim reliefs and keep procedural matters moving, even when trials are adjourned. This evolution has become part of broader dispute resolution mechanisms in India, especially in metro commercial jurisdictions.

Conclusion – Business Disputes in India

Over time, the Indian judiciary has moved from being a reactive dispute forum to a decisive partner in ensuring stability, clarity, and enforceability in business disputes in India. The journey has been gradual, but layered, moving from procedural rigidity toward modernisation and efficiency. Even with the persistence of delays and procedural bottlenecks in some areas, the broader arc shows progress, both institutionally and philosophically.

Today, whether the matter involves a high-stakes shareholder battle, a standard supply chain default, or the enforcement of a foreign arbitral award, Indian courts remain at the heart of the commercial resolution process. Their influence is no longer limited to final decrees; it extends to interim relief, enforcement assistance, and interpretative clarity that gives contracts meaning beyond their text.

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